Great Citizenship Essay

Do you consider yourself a good citizen? Do you feel you’ve helped enough just to keep a good conscious or is there more you can do to actually be considered a good Samaritan by nature? Everyone defines citizenship differently, but overall the intentions of good citizenship are all the same. In the article, Great Citizenship, by Eric Liu, and Nick Hanauer, citizenship is carefully examined and defined as much more than a legal citizen in a particular country. Liu and Hanauer inform the readers on what citizenship really means, what people are missing out on and what more they can do to better themselves as citizens and help society. Doing things out of the kindness of my heart to help another, as well as obeying laws, are things I consider good citizenship. To be a good citizen is to have good intentions. â€Å"By â€Å"Citizenship† we do not mean legal documentation status. We mean living in a pro-social way at every scale of life. We mean showing up for each other† Eric Liu and Nick Hanauer. Great Citizenship. Being a citizen is much more than person who legally belongs to a specific country with legal rights. It involves random acts of kindness not only when it’s convenient but also when it’s inconvenient. Partake in good acts even when others aren’t around such as recycling, throwing misplaced trash in nearby trash cans, helping elders with their groceries, so on and so forth. Every individual leads different lives therefore they have their own burdens and problems to deal with. People are so overwhelmed and focused on themselves that they don’t pay much attention to others and their struggles. As an overwhelmed individual I have the tendency to overlook someone else’s issues whether that someone asks for help or not. I can identify to this part of the reading in a negative way but I can also identify to the reading  in a numerous of positive ways. For example, boosting the confidence of others and giving them a sense of good self-esteem. When I see someone is feeling down I try to make that individuals day in any way I can whether I personally know him/her or not. I â€Å"Make Courtesy Count†. Being courteous to another brings out a feeling of importance and respect whether if it’s a compliment or a simple thing like manners. Out of the five rules I strongly support small acts of leadership compound. Participating in events that help others in school or in your community are huge acts of good citizenship. By helping others or maintaining a stable community you open the doors for others to participate by being a role model. My behavior is influenced by the actions of others by the bandwagon effect. A bandwagon is a popular activity or effort that affects growing support. I’m a good citizen by nature but I’ve also learned to be a good citizen by observing others and their acts of kindness. I see how helping others can make someone’s day and make their life easier and less stressful. My behavior can be modified in a positive and beneficial way by participating more in school and in my community. I can join clubs, or help out around the city by leaving areas nicer than I left it. I can greet more people as I go along my day instead of just greeting them at work as I’m supposed to. Liu, and Hanauer’s beneficial article makes great points that the average person easy overlooks. Being a great citizen is much more than it is thought out to be. Great citizenship hasn’t died out completely, but is overlooked by many everywhere. Paying more attention to our everyday actions can greatly benefit society and will be used more in the future. Generations to come will know more of what it means to be a great citizen.

Nonverbal Communication: a Serious Business Advantage

Business Advantage 2 Nonverbal Communication: A Serious Business Advantage Whether it is called intuition or just good judgment, the ability to perceive and to use nonverbal cues to one’s advantage gives the business person the power and the skill to be more successful. T. S. Eliot wrote in The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, â€Å"There will be time, there will be time / To prepare a face to meet the faces that you meet. † Perhaps he meant that those in business must be prepared in such a way as to make their face agree with the message that the consumer expects to receive.The communication experts agree that when two people have a face-to-face conversation only a small fraction of the total message they share is actually contained in the words they use. A portion of the message is contained in the tone of voice, accent, speed, volume, and inflection. However, approximately 93 percent of it is understood through nonverbal communication behaviors (Source needed). The c ombination of gestures, postures, facial expressions, and even clothing can support or interfere with the verbal messages that a person delivers.The importance of nonverbal cues in the business world has not been studied extensively, but it only makes sense that it can have a strong impact on any communication within or outside the business realm. For instance, selling is an area where the nonverbal actions can make or break a deal. People are unlikely to want to buy from a sales person who refuses to make eye contact, who has poor posture, who lacks energy, and who seems unconvinced about the products and services represented. The importance of nonverbal communication in conjunction with appropriate verbal skills can make a difference to the success of a business transaction.Therefore, this paper will Business Advantage 3 examine nonverbal communication as an important and integral component for business organizations and will determine nonverbal cues that are beneficial for succes sful business interactions. The ability to perceive and use nonverbal cues to one’s advantage gives the business person the power to be successful. Nonverbal communication includes any part of the body used by a person to send a message to another person. A person’s dress, attitude and movements are all contributions to personal business transactions.Sentence and Verbal CommunicationThese cues can help a business owner get the message across or be able to correctly interpret a message received from a customer. Often the nonverbal messages express true feelings more accurately than the actual words. A study by Fatt (1998), notes that any communication in interpersonal relationships is insufficient with just mere words (p. 1). Consequently, he states, â€Å"Nonverbal communication thus becomes the yardstick against which words and intentions are measured† (p. 1). The most common use of nonverbal communication in business has been in marketing research.It is used t o determine consumers’ attitudes towards new products. For example, executives watching a focus test group pay more attention to the nonverbal cues of the group. They are able to more closely identify the test group’s true feelings by observing their body language, facial expressions and eye contact. Facial expressions especially are particularly helpful as they can show hidden emotions that contradict their verbal statements (Remland, 1981, p. 18). Additionally, in business settings, the way one is viewed affects his transactions. Martin Remland (1981) writes that as much as 90 percent of a manager’s time is spentBusiness Advantage 4 communicating with others face-to-face (p. 2). Therefore, business people especially managers have to present themselves as a complete package that includes knowledge of their products, appropriate dress, and adequate use of nonverbal behaviors that depicts sincerity and trustworthiness. Nonverbal behavior is a major component of p ower perception in a business setting. Within a business, the main function of nonverbal communication is to facilitate relationships. Organizations have two major sectors—management and staff—who are usually at odds with each other.According to Aguinis and Henle (2001), â€Å"The effective use of power and the perceptions of one’s power by subordinates, peers and superiors are critical determinants of managerial and organizational success† (p. 537). In this study on perception of power bases, Aquinis and Henle used three specific nonverbal behaviors—eye contact, facial expression, and body posture (p. 538). They defined power as the â€Å"potential of an agent to alter a target’s behavior, intentions, attitude, beliefs, emotion, or values† (p. 538). They also used French and Raven’s power taxonomy that includes five types (p. 538).The first is reward power that means the target believes he can get â€Å"something† from the agent. Second is the coercive power where the target thinks the agent can and will punish him. The third power is legitimate power where the target must obey what the agent requests. Referent power is the need for the target to be associated with the agent. Lastly, the expert power is the target’s belief that the agent is very knowledgeable. Using these definitions of power in vignettes, Aguinis and Henle manipulated one employee’s nonverbal behavior while asking a second employee to rate the power base.Business Advantage 5 They found that direct eye contact and a relaxed facial expression increased perception of power except for coercive power. Body posture had no effect at all. There are other less sophisticated indicators that also signify status. These include behaviors and appearance cues such as clothing, age, gender, and race. In a study by Mast and Hall (2004), the accuracy of judging other people’s status based on behavioral and appearance cues was investigated. They found that only one cue was used to determine if a woman was in higher status.That was a downward head tilt. In males, the observers used both formal dress and a forward lean (p. 161). Mast and Hall also indicated that erect posture was not indicative of status in their research (p. 161). Communication experts agree that in face-to-face communication 93 percent of the message is nonverbal and only seven percent is in the actual words which is absolutely necessary to understand in a business setting. Garside and Kleiner (1991) state, â€Å"This implies that what we say is not as important as how we say it† (p. 26).Today’s businesses need employees who are not only knowledgeable in their field but who also have exceptional interpersonal skills. It is understood that most successful executives prefer verbal communication because it allows them to read body language and to hear tone of voice. Fatt (1998) believes that knowledge of nonverbal processes of communication can improve business success. According to Fatt, â€Å"†¦face-to-face communication, which is heavily weighted with nonverbal information stimulates the greatest number of senses, and provides more complete information than any other mode† (p. ). Business Advantage 6 Since knowledge of nonverbal processes can enhance business success, it is important to recognize and use appropriate nonverbal cues. The first of these is face-to-face communication which provides immediate feedback that allows the business person to modify one’s approach to meet the needs of each encounter. In a research study by Graham, Unruh, and Jennings (1991), they gathered information on the importance of nonverbal feedback to accurate assessments in business transactions.Their findings indicated that nonverbal communication was important to all surveyed and showed that most relied on facial expressions for accurate information. Their recommendations for businesses included, â₠¬Å"†¦paying more attention to nonverbal cues, engaging in more eye contact, and probing for more information when verbal and nonverbal cues are discrepant† (p. 60). One way to do so is through reinforcement behavior that demonstrates approval or disapproval. Also, response-matching is a way in which the business person uses a similar style of speech, posture, or gestures.Thirdly, accommodation is a way of adjusting to personal styles of those involved. It involves â€Å"issues of territoriality, dominance and/or submissiveness, and intimacy† (Fatt, 1998, p. 5). Professionals must use this feedback to note the body language to modify and adjust to the receiver’s behaviors. Another factor to consider is that face-to-face also allows a portion of the message to be contained in vocal elements. These include tone of voice, speed, volume and inflection (Graham et al. , p. 58). Establishing rapport is also a valuable result of face-to-face communication.Rapport is essential in building good business relations with customers and co-workers. It helps Business Advantage 7 to communicate understanding and acceptance of the other person. There are behaviors that greatly contribute to establishing a personal relationship. These include: a sincere smile, a relaxed open stance, a slight lean towards the other person, and maintained eye contact. Mirroring is a very useful technique that can send as well as receive subtle nonverbal messages. In order to mirror another person, it is necessary to match their rate of breathing, speak at the same rate of speech and in their tone of voice.It is also necessary to assume a similar posture and body language to confirm rapport and a comfortable environment. According to Fatt, â€Å"A salesperson who mirror customer’s behavior well and out of a sincere desire to communicate or to be of service usually established a strong rapport with a customer† (p. 6). A business person also utilizes information from nonverbal sources to overcome any barriers to communication with clients. Effective communication is an important aspect of management and sales positions.By decoding nonverbal behaviors, business people can increase their knowledge and understanding of what the client desires. In the first initial contact first impressions can affect both sides of the business transaction. Therefore, a a person who displays confidence has a great advantage in developing rapport and trust with business associates. One’s ability to signal trustworthiness is a significant result of knowledge of nonverbal communication. In a research study conducted by Wood (2006), the findings were that â€Å"nonverbal signals are a particularly important mode of communication between the sender and receiver† (p. 02). Wood also stated that there is an â€Å"importance of the immediate encounter between salespeople and Business Advantage 8 customers. During the first encounter, these nonverbal signa ls are sought out, perceived, and used by customers in their assessment of the trustworthiness of salespeople† (p. 202). Therefore, by using and focusing on nonverbal techniques, the business person can give signals of trustworthiness. Additionally, Wood found that for salespeople all nonverbal signals have a significant impact on the customers (p. 202).Along with confidence, the business person must have an adequate knowledge of reading nonverbal signals. For those with confidence, this type of communication is very natural and they give little thought to it. They greet customers and associates with a firm handshake that send a statement about their confidence. In addition, unflinching eye contact is a sign of frankness and interest which are both essential to sway and sell. David Morand (2001) presented research that suggested management also needed to be able to appraise emotional expressions of customers.He stated, â€Å"Sensing others’ emotional states is obviousl y a skill central to the whole notion of interpersonal communicative competency† (p. 23). He found that it was essential for â€Å"managers to have the ability to decode messages sent by others, specifically focusing on messages existing at a nonverbal emotional level† (p. 23). There are also nontraditional uses of nonverbal communication in the business setting. For instance, the business facility makes a visible statement that reflects its own perceptions. It makes a visible statement about its culture and the way business is done at that facility.One example of this is the head-quarters of Bank of America. It is a very dark, large structure that looms over all the other buildings near it. This sends a powerful message of the perceptions of their company image (Fatt, 1998, p. 2). Larson and Kleiner Business Advantage 9 (2004) claim, â€Å"A company with a strong culture and a lot of pride in itself will typically reflect that pride through its physical environmentâ⠂¬  (p. 2). Additionally, the office furnishings give more information to customers. The furniture of employees gives clues as to the status of that person in the company.If one is on the bottom of the work hierarchy, there probably would be a small, cheaply-made desk with a small chair. The next class would add arms to the chair and some other piece of furniture. Management would have larger desks, a bookshelf and a table. Finally, the top executives would have plush carpeting and a sofa in addition to what those below had (p. 2). Included in the physical aspects of a business is the office environment. Businesses that are more open with very few walls rely on constant communication. They send the message that there are few barriers to communication.They physical aspects of a business help customers to gain insight into the organization and to the people who work within it (Larson & Kleiner, p. 3). Another nontraditional use of nonverbal communication in the business setting is th rough the use of computers with growing online businesses. Online businesses are at a disadvantage without the assistance of nonverbal interactions. However, according to Timothy Bickmore (2004), there is a huge need for programs that recognize and receive nonverbal signals in order to increase sales volume (p. 9). In addition, many companies are utilizing text messaging and instant messaging for customer assistance. Qiu and Benbasat (2005) investigated advancement for programming to develop a trust relationship since this medium is void of any nonverbal signals (p. 75). They state, â€Å"With the help of emerging multimedia technologies, companies can now use computer- Business Advantage 10 generated voice and humanoid avatars to embody customer service representatives, thus enriching the interactive experiences of their customers† (p. 75).Bickmore adds, â€Å"Embodied conversational agents (ECAs) are animated humanoid computer characters that emulate face-to-face conversat ions through the use of hand gestures, facial display, head motion, gaze behavior, body posture, and speech intonation† (p. 39). However, Bickmore also states, â€Å"There is no cookbook defining all of the rules for human face-to-face interaction that human-computer interface practitioners can simply implement† (p. 44). Until ECAs are fully functioning, companies should continue with the proven face-to-face interactions to improve sales volume.Because businesses try to eliminate unnecessary travel and expenses, they are utilizing such mediums as videoconferencing. Even though videoconferencing can replace business meetings, there are disadvantages. The immediate feedback that comes with face-to-face contains cues from the facial expression, voice inflection, and gestures is often not as effective with videoconferencing. For instance, Bekkering and Shim (2006) state, â€Å"With a slow signal, it may appear to the viewer that the speaker hesitates, and hesitation in ans wering is generally considered to be a sign of dishonesty† (p. 105).Another concern is that the camera used can be manipulated to improve one’s advantage such as making one appear taller and giving more influence over the meeting. A third concern involves turn-taking cues. â€Å"In face-to-face conversations, participants alternate speaking and listening by using an intricate mechanism of verbal and nonverbal cues† (p. 105). These researchers go on to say that in videoconferencing one gives up eye contact because it is distorted by separation of screen and camera (p. 105). This infers Business Advantage 11 that perhaps the speaker is being deceptive, and, thus, there is a lack of trust.Therefore, business people will find face-to-face communication a better source of feedback as well as a better rapport builder. Ralph Waldo Emerson said, â€Å"What you do speaks so loud that I cannot hear what you say† (Inspirational Quotes). This has never been truer than in today’s business world. There is a vital link between nonverbal communication and business success. Because of this, body language and other nonverbal cues are communication tools that are too powerful to be ignored. Nonverbal communication can enhance a business person’s powers to persuade while removing any communication barriers with clients.It can improve relationships between the work hierarchies, thus changing the work atmosphere to be more productive. Additionally, it can serve in a nontraditional manner where the business facility itself makes a statement about the company image. The uses of understanding nonverbal communication in a work environment are endless. Therefore, there is still a definite need for training in this area for all employees of a business. This training would complete the business person’s package that includes required knowledge of the business represented, charisma, and employability skills.In conclusion, since effective comm unication is based on skills, and skills can be learned, then communication abilities can be improved in the business environment. It is an integral part of hearing what is said in a business transaction. Business Advantage 12 References Aguinis, H. , & Henle, C. (2001). Effects of nonverbal behavior on perceptions of a female employee’s power base. Journal of Social Psychology, 141(4), 537-549. Retrieved March 27, 2007, from EBSCOhost database (6002448). Bekkering, E. , & Shim, J. P. (2006). i2i Trust in videoconferencing. Communications of the ACM, 49(7), 103-107.Retrieved March 27, 2007, from EBSCOhost database (21469769). Bickmore, T. W. (2004). Unspoken rules of spoken interactions. Communications of the ACM, 47(4), 38-44. Retrieved March 27, 2007, from EBSCOhost database (12713418). Fatt, J. P. (1998). Nonverbal communication and business success. Management Research News, 21(4/5), 1-8. Retrieved March 27, 2007, from Proquest database (295500641). Garside, S. G. , & Kle iner, B. H. (1991). Effective one-to-one communication skills. Industrial and Commercial Training, 23(7), 24-27. Retrieved April 12, 2007, From EBSCOhost database (4636901). Graham, G. H. Unruh, J. , & Jennings, P. (1991). The impact of nonverbal communication in organizations: A survey of perceptions. Journal of Business Communication, 28(1), 45-62. Retrieved April 12, 2007, from EBSCOhost database (5765878). Inspirational quotes for business and work: Nonverbal communication. Retrieved March 18, 2007 from http://humanresources. about. com/od/interpersonalcommunicatio1/ Business Advantage 13 a/quotes_nonverb. htm Larson, J. , &Kleiner B. (2004). How to read nonverbal communication in organizations. Management Research News, 27(4/5), 17-22. Retrieved March 27, 2007, fromProquest database (656765051). Mast, M. S. , & Hall, J. A. (2004). Who is the boss and who is not? accuracy of judging status. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 28(3), 145-165. Morand, D. A. (2001). The emotional intell igence of managers: Assessing the construct validity of a nonverbal measure of â€Å"people skills†. Journal of Business and Psychology, 16(1), 21-33. Qiu, L. , & Benbasat, I. (2005). Online consumer trust and live help interfaces: The effects of test-to-speech voice and three-dimensional avatars. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 19(1), 75-94. Retrieved March 7, 2007, from EBSCOhost database (18324428). Remland, M. (1981). Developing leadership skills in nonverbal communication: A situational perspective. Journal of Business Communication, 18(3), 18-29. Retrieved April 12, 2007, from EBSCOhost database (5765673). Wood, J. A. (2006). NLP revisited: nonverbal communications and signals of trustworthiness. Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 26(2), 197-204. Retrieved March 27, 2007 from EBSCOhost database (6456374). Business Advantage 1 Nonverbal Communication: A Serious Business Advantage Wesley George Nonverbal Communication Dr. Lynn Meade Apr il 27, 2007

Unfair practice procedure

This event was held as portion of the on-going support made available to academic schools to back up consistent application of the Unfair Practice Procedure, and to portion pattern in the usage of plagiarism sensing tools and schemes that help avoid plagiarism. The event was divided into the three elements below: A sum-up of the usage made of the Unfair Practice Procedure, and a opportunity to discourse issues originating from this ; Discussion of the usage made of Turnitin and the online tools that can assist raise consciousness of plagiarism ; A short presentation by three International Students on the different attacks to analyze they have encountered before come ining UK higher instruction.1 ) The Unfair Practice ProcedureA sum-up of the instances considered by the University Committee of Enquiry was presented, along with the available informations on the instances considered within schools, and remarks made by External Examiners on this issue. Small group treatment followed between participants, which led a figure of issues being identified that relate to the Committee of Enquiry. These included the position of some schools that the Committee has been excessively lenient in some instances, and that the processs used by the Committee remain really nerve-racking to staff involved. It was noted that this has resulted in some schools being unwilling to use the process.2 ) Prevention and Detection ToolsA brief presentation was given of a scope of online tools that are available to back up Cardiff pupils in this country, incl uding the & A ; lsquo ; Student Guide to Academic Integrity ‘ , & A ; lsquo ; Plagiarism Learning Objects within the Information Literacy Resource Bank ‘ , and the & A ; lsquo ; Plagiarism and How to Avoid it ‘ tutorial now available through Blackboard. This was followed by treatment of the increased usage that is being made of the Turnitin plagiarism sensing package, and of the issues that surround its usage. Points originating from this treatment included the demand to be cognizant of possible additions in assessment-related disposal, and the possible value of the tool to back up formative appraisals.3 ) The View of International StudentsFollowing a sum-up of the survey patterns that international pupils have admitted to, the concluding portion of the workshop saw three international pupils offer their position on the different cultural and study traditions that exist in the UK compared with their place states, and the differing outlooks of their current schools and support mechanisms available. The positions provided echo the recent research findings, which have highlighted the scope of different challenges that international pupils face in this country. These include traditions that focus on a cultural worldview where regard for betters and seniors is paramount, an accent on rote acquisition, and a focal point on multiple pick inquiries and scrutinies that rely on memory. The event concluded by observing that larning to run within western academic conventions, for international pupils, is kindred to larning a new linguistic communication. the resources linked to from this page have been collated to help academic staff when they suspect an unjust pattern has taken topographic point in a coursework appraisal. The undermentioned resources can be accessed from this page: Unfair Practice – Staff Guidance [ 83.2 Kb ] This note covers the undermentioned countries: definition of unjust pattern, how to forestall unjust pattern in coursework, and the stairss that must be followed when an unjust pattern is suspected. The Unfair Practice Regulations as detailed in the Academic Regulations Handbook. These contain inside informations of the process that must be used. TheTurnitin Plagiarism Detection Service is an on-line tool that can assist place cases of unjust pattern. Information and advice about accessing the service is availablehere. A new individual instance record has been adopted for cases of unjust pattern. Flow charts have besides been developed to assist steer staff through the process. These can be accessed from the resources subdivision. A suite of standard letters has been provided to help staff involved in the application of the new Unfair Practice Procedure. The undermentioned missive templets are available to download from the Resources subdivision of this page:Letter 1: Unfair Practice Co-ordinator ask foring pupil to go to a meetingLetter 2: Unfair Practice Co-ordinator directing pupil the notes of the meetingLetter 3: Chair of Exam Board to student who failed to go to the initial meetingLetter 4: Chair of Exam Board to student where the determination is that unjust pattern has occured, and advising pupil of the punishmentLetter 5: Chair of Exam Board to student where the determination is that no unjust pattern occurred and no farther action will be taken5.0Unfair pattern in a formal scrutiny: initial phases5.1 When it is considered or suspected that a campaigner is prosecuting in unjust pattern, the campaigner shall be informed, sooner in the presence of a informant, that the fortunes will be reported. The cam paigner shall, nevertheless, be allowed to go on the scrutiny and any subsequent scrutiny ( s ) without bias to any determination that may be taken. Failure to give such a warning shall non, nevertheless, prejudice subsequent proceedings. When appropriate, the invigilator shall impound and retain grounds associating to any alleged unfair scrutiny pattern, so that it is available to any subsequent probe. The invigilator shall every bit shortly as possible study the fortunes in authorship, with any grounds retained, to the Superintendent of Examinations, who shall in bend inform the Chair of the relevant Examining Board. In the instance of a trial contributing to the concluding faculty consequence, which is conducted under the auspices of the section, the invigilator shall describe to the Chair of the Examining Board, who in bend shall describe to the Overseer5.2 Suspected unjust pattern detected during or after the marker periodAn internal or external tester or any other individual who, whether during the marking period or later, considers or suspects that a campaigner has engaged in an unjust pattern, shall describe the affair in composing to the Chair of the relevant Examining Board every bit shortly as possible. The Chair shall retain any relevant grounds and shall forthwith study the affair in composing to the Superintendent of Examinations. The Overseer of Examinations shall so take the action prescribed below.5.3Further action to be taken by the Superintendent of ExaminationsOn reception of a study refering an allegation of unjust pattern, the Superintendent of Examinations shall discourse the affair with the Chair of the relevant Examining Board to find whether, in the visible radiation of all the fortunes, a Prima facie instance has been established. If it is decided that no farther action against the campaigner should be taken, the Chair of the relevant Examining Board shall, where appropriate, inform the campaigner in composing that the affair is closed. If satisfied that such a instance exists, the Superintendent shall describe the instance in composing to the Registrar and shall direct to him/her transcripts of any relevant supporting grounds. The process shown shall so run as described. The Registrar shall inform the campaigner in authorship of the allegation, and that a Committee of Inquiry will be constituted to see the instance. The campaigner ‘s attending shall be drawn to the Academic Regulation on Unfair Practice.ContentssDefinition of Unfair Practice|Unfair Practice in a Formal Examination – Initial Stages|All Cases of Unfair Practice in Work Completed Under Non-examinable Conditions|School Level Cases|Appeals against a instance at School level|Cases to be referred to the University ‘s Committee of Enquiry|Unfair pattern in work completed in Taught Master ‘s Dissertations and Research Degree Theses – Initial Stages|Establishment of the University ‘s Committee of Enquiry to cover with instances of Unfair Practice|Functions of the Committee|Procedure during the meeting|Penalties available to the # Committee for unjust pattern in scrutiny conditions|Penalties available to the Committee of Enquiry in instances of Unfair Pract ice in non-examination conditions|Penalties available to the Committee in instances of Unfair Practice in Research grades ( including Part II Taught Masters grades ) |Action to be taken following the Committee of Enquiry|Appeals

The 1979 Revolution and Modern Day Iran Research Paper

The 1979 Revolution and Modern Day Iran - Research Paper Example This paper gives a detailed analysis of the history of Iran from the time of the revolution of the 1979 to the modern day Iran. The Shah The Rise of the Shah Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi came to power in 1941 after the allied forces forced his father to abdicate the throne to him fearing that the father would cooperate with the Nazi Germany (Rehan, 4). By doing this the allied forces hoped to develop a great influence in the region. However, in the early 1950s the allied forces got a rude shock when Shah’s hold on power was challenged by the Prime Minister, Dr. Mohammad Mossadegh. Under the country’s constitutional monarchy the prime minister had a lot of powers and Mossadegh took advantage of this power and nationalized Iran’s petroleum industry without the knowledge of the British and the US (Rehan, 4). This move angered the two countries and in 1953 they organized a coup de tat that deposed Mossadegh and established the Shah who had been forced to flee after the first coup attempt against Mossadegh failed. After the success of this second coup, Pahlavi Shah was allowed to return to power but as a de facto autocrat who was sympathetic to both the United States and the United Kingdom. Shah remained in power until 1979 when he was overthrown. The Shah’s policies When Pahlavi replaced his father on the throne, he wanted to carry on with his father’s reforms but failed to do so because of a contest for control of the government that erupted between him and Mossadegh. He became involved with the affairs of the government and opposed the prime minister, and as a result established himself as a very important ally of the west (Rehan, 4). For example, in 1976 he disregarded the Islamic tradition by changing the Islamic calendar to imperial calendar when he marked Cyrus’ birth as day one as opposed to Prophet Muhammad’s flight from Mecca to Medina. Nevertheless, in the country Pahlavi advocated reform policies, culminatin g in the 1963 white revolution, which included eradication of illiteracy, land reforms and the expansion of voting rights to women (Rehan, 5). He also allocated oil revenues to various agencies and projects, and directly supervised the Iran’s security organizations and armed forces. The Effects on the Shah’s Policies on the People Although some of the shah’s policies were of great benefit to the country, most of them especially the white revolution policy received great oppositions. The policies provoked religious leaders and caused civil unrest in the country. The religious leaders were against the policies because of the fear of losing their traditional authority over the shah. The growing uncertainty of the shah’s rule also provoked the intellectuals who were seeking democratic reforms. His ties with the United States and the British was also strongly opposed by the Iranians and considered as anti-Islamic (Rehan, 5). The Revolution Causes of the Revolu tion The causes of the 1979 revolution are unclear and remain a subject of historical debate. However, as indicated in most historical books, the revolution occurred as a result of the people of Iran being fed up with the Shah’s rule which was characterized by corruption, ill-conceived modernization programs, suppression of civil liberties and western loyalties (World Savvy Monitor, par 5). The Shah was considered by many to be a puppet of the western power, oppressive, corrupt,

Auditing Committee Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Auditing Committee - Essay Example Audit Committees Introduction An audit committee can be defined as a committee that generally comprise of non-executive directors and is responsible for liaising between the board of directors and the external auditors (Parker, 1992). The responsibilities of audit committee encompass matters related to audits, financial reporting and internal control (Spira, 1998). Because of the importance of audit committees, major stock exchanges across the world such as US, UK, Canada, India, France, Australia, Honk Kong, Japan and Germany have given significant importance as a part of their listing requirements. Audit committees started from the US and percolated to other countries of the world. Audit committee of an organization is expected to perform the following activities: Make recommendations in the area of external auditor to the Board of Directors. These include selecting the external auditor, deciding the audit fees, renew/terminate the contract with the external auditor, decide the sco pe of work done by external auditor and other liaising activities between the external auditor and BoD. ... r major contributions that an audit committee can make to the corporate governance of an organization are (Cobb, 1993): Reduction of board liability Establishing a link between the external auditor and the board Reduction of illegal activity and Proper representation of the financial statements Besides these, audit committees also reduce the agency cost of an organization. This is achieved by reduction in the information asymmetries between executive and non-executive directors (Eichenseher and Shields, 1985; Pincus et al., 1989). Audit committees also lead to reduction in the legal liability of the directors. Audit committees also help the process of corporate governance by: enabling BoD to meet their responsibility; improving auditor independence (Bradbury, 1990); and strengthening the role of non-executive directors (Porter and Gendall, 1998). Audit committees ensure that the external audit has performed its job well. At the same time they are also responsible for ensuring the rel iability of the internal audit processes. This aspect of the audit committee will strengthen the overall audit process and positively impact the corporate governance of the organization. Audit committees also lead to generation of wealth for shareholders. This is based on the premise that non-executive directors are more likely to act in the interest of the shareholders (Rosentein and Wyatt, 1990). Limitations of audit committees Although audit committees play a very pivotal role in managing the corporate governance of an organization, there are certain areas which do not fall under the preview of the committee. An audit committee is not responsible to plan and conduct audits. At the same time, an audit committee is not responsible to determine if the company’s financial statements are

Globalization of Heaalthcare Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Globalization of Heaalthcare - Research Paper Example This practice is relatively uncommon at the time but within a short time this practice will develop to global standards. Following are the reasons behind the globalization of healthcare. Some countries are known for their doctors and the technological advancements they have made in the field of medical and health care. That is why these countries have high medical costs due to their skilled and well known staff. Under developed countries are working hard towards development and which is why they offer better services. Goodwill among Different Countries: globalization of healthcare promotes goodwill and understanding among different countries. Globalization is any kind of exchange of goods and services between countries with the sole purpose of efficiency and better results. Outsourcing of services is one of the benefits for the developing countries that they are able to adopt standards, processes along with the language of the developed countries. Outsourcing of medical services can also influence the economic benefits because the developed countries will thrive when individuals from developed countries will travel to their countries in order to seek medical help. IMPROVES PRODUCTION OF GOOD AND SERVICES: globalization of health provides a platform to improve their production of goods and services of countries by sharing their expertise and international cooperation. Globalization also influence the technology and help create educated and internet savvy consumers. Different countries come together and they promote their new technological advancements which help under developed countries to exhilarate. healthcare globalization can stifle development: globalization is one of the reasons for the downfall in growth in many countries. It imposes negative advent effects on the growth of under developed countries in the field of health care. There are two

Proposal Assignment ( University Safety System ) Essay

Proposal Assignment ( University Safety System ) - Essay Example Even though keeping student and occupants of Texas Wesleyan University require the effort of the whole community in general, the university is an important piece of the undertaking to keep staff and the students safe. Safe institutions are purposeful and orderly places in which staff and students are free to teach and learn without the threat of psychological and physical harm. The safety systems in Texas Wesleyan University are weak thus Weak safety systems in this institution interfere with learning process. Strengthening safety system supports a proper learning environment that enables achievement of learning goals. Moreover, Weak safety systems reduce effective learning hours of every student. This has an impact on the grades and general life development. Improving safety systems will enhance their quality of education and life. It is therefore important to create a safety system for camps and the other utilities in Texas Wesleyan University Analysis of Texas Wesleyan University safety system shows certain safety loopholes that require an action plan. As Blake (2 May 2014) states through an interview, Texas Wesleyan University do not have a perimeter wall to enhance physical safety, no surveillance cameras within the older dormitories and the students do not use access cards at the gates and the classes to gain access. Other problems he stated are drunk driving and the few call boxes which are necessary to enhance emergency action system. Increasing student population increases demand for safety systems. Unsafe learning environments will affect learning process. Old technology cannot beat with faster changing demands and different student needs. People play a vital role in any safety program. This is because they provide guidelines with respect to safety policies, staffing, training and procedures. Texas Wesleyan University must come up with a clear safety policy. University safety policy is the

International Banking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

International Banking - Essay Example on whereby an organisation or business has immediate cash needs, although it has assets, its trading position is not good enough to honour all cash obligations (Machiraju, 2013). This is described as the risk of overcapitalisation and it occurs when an organisation holds a lot of assets, but lacks the ability to convert the assets into cash in the short-run. In the banking sector, the issue of liquidity risk occurs in a distinct and unique manner. One fundamental assumption of banking is that depositors are not going to withdraw all their money at once (Matz, 2011). Banks are however required to hold assets that are mainly liquid in nature and convert them to cash in a very short term (Matz, 2011). Therefore, in banking parlance, liquidity is defined as â€Å"the ability of an economic agent to exchange his existing wealth for goods and services or other assets without incurring damaging losses† (Castagna & Fede, 2013, p. 18). Liquidity risks include funding liquidity which refers to the risk of settling obligations with the central bank as it occurs. There is also the market liquidity risk which revolves around the ability of a bank to settle its obligations to stakeholders on the market. This is the â€Å"inability to realise assets due to inadequate market depth, or market disruption† (Adalsteinsson, 2014, p. 26). Bank liquidity risks can be measured both internally and externally. Internally, bank liquidity risks are defined by international conventions and practices that are placed on the authorities and directors of the bank. This is to be done through the utilisation of various formulas put forward by international entities like the Basel Conventions. Basel III proposed that bank liquidity risks can be evaluated by assessing: These are insider indices and they are often done through the utilisation of privileged information that allows banks to evaluate trends and processes in their activities and affairs. However, to the ordinary investor, there is likely

The Effect of interest rate Liberalization on the risk of commercial Dissertation

The Effect of interest rate Liberalization on the risk of commercial banks in China - Dissertation Example The paper has discussed illustrates a mixed picture after interest rate liberalization and its associated risk on the commercial banks in China. Historically China is a strong believer in the planned economy where strict government intervention under a single party rule always has the last word regarding the policies to be prioritized and implemented. Though after the iron rule of Mao-era China has learned under Deng Xiaoping that FDI and capitalist exploitation is not the same thing but the people as well as the government are still skeptical about their nature of the operation. Over the past couple of decades, China has realized huge GDP growth through export-oriented international trade. This on one hand, strengthened the export based industries on the other weekend the indigenous industries especially those indulged in import substitution. Again amidst this prosperity, China has slipped down considering the GINI coefficient and that illustrates a rising inequality i.e. an increas ing gap between the rich and poor people. Eminent academicians hold the view that with China’s present model rich are becoming richer and poor are becoming poorer. The development is mainly urban centric and rural China is subject to stagnation and a much higher unemployment than the urban areas.... es cemented their feet under the strict rule of Mao Ze Dong who opted for self sufficiency and betterment of the common rather than external dependency and flourish of the few (Chi, 1992, pp.75-84; Buchanan, 2012, p.24). Mao believed in a closed door policy that meant isolation from the rest of the world regarding economic transaction. Though diplomatic relation with Soviet Russia along with many east European nations was encouraged but that never translated into economic exchange. During Mao’s rule the growth rate of China was stable but slow and often subject to stagnation. Though, such view has many opposing facts and evidences illustrated through literature. However after Mao’s death Deng Xiaoping became the most prominent figure in Chinese politics and soon realized the need to embrace the globalization in order to boost the Chinese economic growth. The current topic of discussion that refers to interest rate liberalization and risk to commercial banks is an import ant aspect to discuss. However, financial liberalization along with interest rate liberalization often considered by the economists as the last stage of liberalization process that have went through and met several other steps directed towards the liberalization of the economy (Chow, 2005). Welcoming FDI into an economy might be considered as the first step towards liberalization. In initial days China lacked both the legal frame work as well as their policy towards globalization was skeptic and the legal frame work governing the same was week. But the scenario started changing from mid 80’s and historically Hong Kong remained the prime source of foreign direct investment provider to China. Such investments were mainly towards labor intensive sectors and high end technological and capital intensive

Corporate Social Responsibility Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Corporate Social Responsibility - Case Study Example Or the company may choose to externalize CSR operations by assisting environmental non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and concentrating on their business activities without actively getting involved with CSR issues. The nature of CSR followed by us at Nestle is not too difficult to analyze because we are very clear about our fundamentals. CSR is so integrated in our system that it has become a part and parcel of our business. We are proud of our integration with CSR. Different experts on management have different views about CSR. This difficulty is exasperating because it does not allow CSR to be clearly defined. However, the management at Nestle are agreed on the fundamentals of CSR. We have a mutually advantageous situation with CSR. That is, the benefits of CSR to Nestle are in direct proportion to the benefits that CSR receives from us. Notwithstanding the fact that we have such advantageous link with CRS, there are areas that we could explore for further benefits. Hitherto, we have not made any research on the actual amount of benefits that we could source from CSR. In this paper, we will lay an outline of the areas where we believe there are plenty of businesses that we can generate through CSR (Chen, Derek; 2009). It is not be possible to measure the social responsibilities. ... CSR is so integrated in our system that it has become a part and parcel of our business. We are proud of our integration with CSR. Different experts on management have different views about CSR. This difficulty is exasperating because it does not allow CSR to be clearly defined. However, the management at Nestle are agreed on the fundamentals of CSR. We have a mutually advantageous situation with CSR. That is, the benefits of CSR to Nestle are in direct proportion to the benefits that CSR receives from us. Notwithstanding the fact that we have such advantageous link with CRS, there are areas that we could explore for further benefits. Hitherto, we have not made any research on the actual amount of benefits that we could source from CSR. In this paper, we will lay an outline of the areas where we believe there are plenty of businesses that we can generate through CSR (Chen, Derek; 2009). How is social responsibility measurable It is not be possible to measure the social responsibilities. Social responsibilities are immense. As a company, we can do our bit to contribute to social responsibilities. We can do this in two ways. We can either get directly involved with social projects. Or we could associate with any government or non-governmental organization who is involved in social projects. Although it is difficult to measure CSR, we have been following CSR principles since long years now. The quality and quantity of our involvement in sustainable environment has been quite substantial. As we grow, the quantum of our contributions to CSR is only bound to grow. "Nestl's environmental stewardship is guided by three principles: - Our responsibility towards society, present and future; - Our desire to delight consumers; - Our

Introduction to Engineering - Truss Bridge Design Essay

Introduction to Engineering - Truss Bridge Design - Essay Example Introduction to Engineering - Truss Bridge Design This model successfully worked to hold desired load and effectively fulfilled the load resistance qualities that a practical bridge must have. Keywords Truss bridge, bridge competition, bridge model, bridge stability. Introduction Bridge design is the fundamental part of civil engineering and most critical as well. It is designed for transportation of heavy traffic; meanwhile, it is constructed to cope with environmental effects like storms. There are many types of bridges that are being used around the world, among them most common are arch bridges, girder bridges, truss bridges, cantilever bridges, cable stayed bridges, moveable bridges and suspension bridges(SWE, 2012). The type of bridge that we incorporated in our design is the truss bridge. These are the oldest and the most economical bridges found around the world with excellent weight bearing capacity(BuildingBig, 2010). Atypical truss bridge is shown below: Specialty of truss bridges is the triangular elements present in the structure to share the load applied on the bridge by the traffic(JHU). In a typical truss bridge design the horizontal members are responsible for bearing loads as a result of horizontal as well as dynamic compression. In our bridge design we made use of Popsicle sticks to create truss members as well as the base of the bridge. These sticks were joined together by making use of glue. Where required, the sticks were cut to the required lengths for making triangle structures of the bridge. For providing strength to the design, the sticks were stacked over each other in 3 to 4 layers and the whole structure was made which is shown below: Before finalizing the above bridge design, we tested a number of bridge structures before as well by making use of west point bridge design, but all those designs failed while testing. By making use of strategic techniques to design practical bridges based on load distribution errors were reduced and thickness of trusses and other members was increased. This gave stability to the bridge design. After that we started working in the structure of the bridge. For that purpose the first task was to select the appropriate material for constructing truss bridge which goes we ll with our dimensional requirements. Therefore, popsicle sticks were chosen as a preferred material. After that all the sticks were marked at the point of applying glue. Initial step was to design the the bottom frame of the structure in which three layers of sticks were used. Here is the view of one bottom structure. Total two rails were made for the bridge. After structuring the bottom next step was to structure the rectangular truss portion of the bridge. For that purpose first two steps of bottom design were used; to collect popsicle sticks and gluing them together. After that, triangular portions were structured and joined together. These trusses were then connected to the bottom rails as shown below: Last step was to connect the assembly of both the trusses and bottom rails to each other by making use of popsicle sticks and gluing them to the bottom. In this way the final structure was drawn. Results and Discussion In the design of first bridge, total 145 popsicle sticks were used and the resulting weight of the bridge was calculated to be approximately 198.3lbs. The designed bridge

Top 10 Interveiw Question and Answer Essay Example for Free

Top 10 Interveiw Question and Answer Essay Introduce yourself Before I start, I’d like to thank you for give me this opportunity by conducting this interview. My name is Jing Shen, and you can call me Jane, I am from Dailian, I was studying and working in Ireland for last 9 years, I got my Bachelors degree in Accounting and Finance at 2008 from Dublin Business school, and just before that, I got a certificate of Business English issued by higher education and training awards council Ireland. During my study, I also held various part-time jobs, for these jobs, I learned many valuable qualities, e. g. my first job was in a small coffee shop which had only 3 staff, from this job, I learned how to work in a very busy environment both effectively and efficiently. At 2008, I found a job in shell petrol station as a cash counter, from this job, I learned the ability of prudence by conducting daily stock check and cash counting. 2. What is your least likely subject in school and why? I do not have a particularly subject that I don’t like during my study, however, these were few subjects that I had less interest than other, in these cases, I would spend more time on these less interested subject, and over time, these subjects often became more and more interesting to me during the study, on the other hand, for these subjects that I preferred, I naturally would study with pleasure, that why my overall result for every subject was quite balanced. 3. Greatest advantage I think my greatest advantage is taking job/task seriously and have the quality of prudence which probably results from my study of accounting. I am a good team player, I like co-ordinate with others and quite open to take advice/different opinions from others. I enjoy working under pressure and enjoy taking challenges. As result of various part time jobs I have during these years, I am also a very good adaptor, I can learn new suffers in a very short time and transfer them to useful working knowledge. However, sometimes, I perhaps too persevere with a task to take easy for a while; this is probably also result from my study of accounting. 4. Do you think yourself as a good student? In my point of view, to determinate whether a person is a good student should be based on various aspects, rather than exam result alone. I have fairly well exam result, and also quite good personal development in other aspects, for example, I have very good ethical standard, quite diversified working experiences, the spirit of teamwork and excellent communication skills, therefore I think, yes, I am a good student. . Taking about your family I love my family very much, I was raised in a working class family, both of my parents are ordinary factory workers, although there was nothing special of their day to day work, they still love their jobs very much. My father takes his job very seriously and often working very later without any grumbles. My mother is a great person, she is very kind and warm to any one, and happy to help other when they needed, therefore everybody loves her in her factory, by watch them, I learned the ability to working hand, take responsibility in jobs and becomes a honest person. . What is your expectation of the industry and its technology development? 7. For the position that you apply for, what do you think you short of? I think I can handle this position very well, however, I do understand I might be lack of experience for this particular job, I think that I can solve this problem very quickly if I get this job, I am a fast learner, I believe I can quickly integrate into company’s corporate culture and get into a solid working state in a short time. . What kind of salary do you expected? I believe I have the competence and ability to doing this job well, however, as you do not give a very detail description of this job, I think we can talk this question further later. 9. What can you bring to the company? I believe receptionist is a very important position for any company, it can add value to your company in at least 3 areas. Firstly, receptionist is often the first person that clients will meet, I promise I will give them a confident and professional image about our company, if I got this job, I will try to obtain as much knowledge as possible of our products, so I can give client first hand information if they ask. Secondly, I take work quite seriously, and I have quite good memory, therefore, I can give clients better service by memorize their question and requirement, and find most suitable way to dealing these issues. Finally, I can work as a co-coordinator among clients, management and staffs, I also able to give accurate and timely information to any departments when they need it. 10. Do you have any other question? Would you provide any training or development programme for your employees? Could I participating such programme? What are the promotion criteria or development route for your company? 10. What are the most difficult and most successful things during your life so far? For me, the most difficult and successful experience is actual the same thing which is studying in a foreign country. I was only 21 years old when I went to Ireland, before that, I was never away from my parents, at that time, my English is very poor and I did have any marketable skill, I did not know what is my future like, finding a job, learning the English, everything is hard to me at first and I had no one to support me. However, I didn’t give up of myself, by working hard and with my own efforts I overcome these difficulties. In the 9 years which I studied in Ireland , I finished my degree and accomplished 9 of 14 subjects of ACCA exams, and I can proud to say, I earned every penny of the tuition and living fees during my overseas study.

Consumerism and Fashion in Singapore

Consumerism and Fashion in Singapore Everlasting consumerism has shaped the way 21st century landscape looks like. It creates unlimited demand of products and stores in any possible space. Retail design is responsible to convert this possible space into a consumerism space. It is where people encounter strong force to see and buy products. A perfect example to show evidence exists in fashion world. There is strong indication of tense competition happens between clothing manufacture to win the market. In relation to that, the store has become one key aspect or rather a strong statement to create brand awareness among public. The question arise is how, in a relatively over-saturated market, a store can be possibly designed to convey strong message to draw the crowd of consumerism into the space. 1.1. Consumerism Today The idea of consuming has changed over the past decades. Back to the early human civilization period, most of the activities were needs-driven actions. Earlier, as hunter gatherer, human hunted animals to be able to eat. Followed by agricultural period, farming and plant cultivation were done to produce their food. Consuming was a mere activity that must be done in order to survive. In Industrial and technological age, the way people consume things has changed. As more diverse product being produced and diverse ways of distribution being invented, there are pleasure factors of consuming in form of choices. People find excitement in choosing what they want to consume. This leads to modern consumerism where the concept of consuming goes beyond the needs of survival. 1.2. Shopping as Modern Consumerism Shopping is the 21st centurys representation of human consumerism. People find delights surrounded by range of different shops and brands. To be able to choose and compares is the highlight of modern life consumerism. In forms of choosing, buying, and using, shopping has catered these needs. Shopping can be seen as in a positive way of fulfilling peoples needs and wants. But apparently, it has developed so fast, in terms of activity, space, and products. And over the past decades, it becomes major aspect in human life. Museums, libraries, airports, hospitals, and schools are becoming increasingly indistinguishable from shopping. Their adoption of retail for survival has unleashed an enormous wave of commercial entrapment that has transformed museumgoers, researchers, travelers, patients, and students into customers (Koolhaas cited in Luna, 2005, p.26) Shopping is arguably the most universal activity nowadays. The way designer design space has to follow this idea as well. Space has to be designed in such a way to accommodate this, to enable people to shop anywhere, anytime. 1.3. The Existence of Fashion Retail Fashion retail perhaps is the best example to portray the modern consumerism. It shows how people eagerly choose what they wear under the spotlight of diverse fashion brands. If the case is taken to a higher level, it demonstrates obviously how people decisions are led by choice instead of needs. High class fashion brands such as LMVH, Gucci, and Prada exist to serve beyond peoples demand of clothing. They meet peoples desire for choices for range of luxury products. 1.4. Fashion of Singapore Singapore cityscape pictures clearly the existence of international fashion brands. They, indeed, has become one strong attraction point of Singapore for both local costumers and tourists. Singapore is one of the main competition arenas for these giant fashion brands in Asia. To be able to meet customers demand, every brand has to come up with high-end design for its retail. Design and technologies are optimized in its use to boost the shopping experience that lead to brand awareness. All these things have to be done so that people will choose certain brand and not others. Orchard Road is a good example depicting the competition among these brands. Interior design, facade treatment, display technologies are being optimized to attract pedestrians along the road. 2. Retail Rebirth People find pleasures in choosing what they want. Retail has two different approaches in response to the demand. Firstly, they must be able to provide a range of products for customers to choose. Secondly, the retail itself subject to competition. That means it is also considered one of so many choices in the market. In this matter, the retail has to prove to the market that it is worth chosen. The brand, the products, and the store has to work together to stand out and creates strong awareness in the marketplace. Retail has to rebirth, leaving old conservative way of promoting brands, and creating fresh interaction between products and customers. 2.1. Brand Manifestation With a strong competition in the fashion market, a strong distinctive image of a brand is required to create public awareness. The case is not only competition among products but also continues to the environment where the products being promoted. At this stage, a store has become key tool for the brand to create its images. A flagship store is designed to represents the identity of the brand indeed. For new customers, the store become the first things that attracts them before they go further down to the products being offered or even before they see the window displays. 2.1.1. Design for the Brands Architecture and interior design are responsible to create environment to deliver products to customers. Fashion retail, regardless of style, trends, or brand identity, should be able to create customer awareness and stimulate them to come and choose it instead of other shops. This is the fundamental function of retail design before it goes down into a deeper and more specific case-based function. On higher level, the architect or interior designer must understand the nature of fabric and how individual fashion designer, that is being represented, has their personal technique to treat it. This unique quality is the one that gives character to a brand. The character, then, must be translated into the space in order to create strong statement of the brand. 2.1.2. Emphasizing Character In order to be distinctive in an over-crowded market, a strong character of the brand is required. This character is projected from the way the brand carry itself to the market. It consists of range of products and service being offered, and the environment of where the commercial activities take place. Retail design has to be able to create the atmosphere that bridge customers and products. The store acts as a package and shelter, literally and metaphorically, to the brand. The character will only be emphasized if there is unity between the brand, the product, and the store. 2.1.3. Characterizing Structure A store as a physical shelter might be more than enough to envelope the commercial activity happening under it. But in fashion world, it goes further than functionality. More than just a place to display the product and providing circulation for people to walk and browse the product, the retail has to relate itself to the product and the company philosophy. In other words, the store has to establish relation, in form and purpose, with the clothes. The physical structure, that provide commercial environment, has to blend in with the clothes and create overall unity. Only by this way, the customer will see the bigger picture of the brand, and not loose pieces of the brands. One ideal example of harmony between brand and store is shown in Calvin Klein store located in Avenue Montaigne, Paris. Its store, designed by John Pawson in 2002, made a good illustration of how the character of the clothes -especially the early Calvin Kleins work- has been translated into the retail space. (Klein) has said It s important not to confuse simplicity with uninteresting, and executes his simplified, refined, sportswear-based shapes in luxurious natural fibers, (Stegemeyer, 2004, p.130) It is the idea of simplicity that is consistently conveyed through the brand, products, and store. Straight lines and clear space sequences brings out the clarity of the clothes, creating a clean and subtle ambiance of the store. The desired simplicity atmosphere is reinforced through neutral colour that is achieved by materials and lighting installation. 2.2. Design Distinction A character manifestation to a space is inevitability essentials to create strong brand awareness. However, regardless of the brand that is being represented, fashion store can be distinctive by itself. It is a second step after establishing strong representation of the brand. This is about different approach from the experience side, exploring the interaction between products and customers in a conducive controlled environment. In other word, it redefines the way people shop inside a store, creating a fresh shopping experience. 2.2.1. New Fashion Stores Fundamental With Singapore landscape that has been over-crowded with shopping malls and retail stores, the creation of retail store should be more carefully considered. When the market is driven by consumerism, the rate of retail formation will continue to rise up. However, any retail creation should consider avoiding similar addition to the existing scene that might create saturation to market. It is a strategy to evade the similarity and, at the same time, open up a chance to stand out in the marketplace. To address the issues, the store must cater certain factors in its design approach in spite of the brand it conveys. 2.2.2. Flexible Frequent Space Retails should be able to update themselves frequently. It has to be able to adapt to new products, seasonality, and customer trends. There is a high level of experimentation in retail design. It relates to fashion, and fashion changes constantly, is surprising and wants to create experiences (de Wild, 2009, p.14) In advance level, apart from the temporary things, it has to change in order to create different interaction between customers and product in each encounter. In other word it needs to shift, not just in terms of layout, but in a bigger store scheme. By applying this concept, it is not only the window displays that change every time new products are launched, but the whole store represent the display that able to change entirely. The idea can be achieved by applying modular system for the furniture, placing digital multimedia interface, using less heavy fixed display furniture, and installing replaceable lighting systems. 2.2.3. Centre of Social Activities The new concept of retail store is not merely about catering commercial activities -selling, advertising, and buying. It is to incorporate retail space and communal space to be a social meeting point. With the global trend of privatization, I think we are most interested in the idea of shopping as a new kind of public space. How can we enrich these experiences? Can we bring new content, information, ideas and visual experiences to shopping in a thoughtful and dynamic way? (Seller, 2009, p. 23) The idea is to facilitate people do many other inspiring activities in their shopping time. This idea can be done by open-space concept store, creation of different communal spaces inside the store, and even distribution between product display and decorative items -plants, resting furniture, etc. The ideal integration of social space and commercial space is when people are able to rest and relief without any pressure to buy while they are unconsciously take pleasure in the products and tempted to buy. 2.2.4. Cultural Relevance Local relevancy is important to make a store appears hospitable. Establishing relation with the local culture is crucial to relate the global brand to smaller local market. Selling products is not about bombarding potential customers with the global products. Instead, it has to be relevant to the context and understand local customers. This can be manifested through adaptive re-use of local landmark as retail space, renovation of historical aged building, and design fusion between brand character and local culture. The new concept store is about being able to combine the attractiveness of the brand with local taste to create strong invitation and also sense of belonging to customers. The design approach mentioned above can be applied into a store regardless of brands and products. The purpose is to create new way of shopping. Back to the statement earlier where people find satisfaction to be able to choose, it is how the choosing activity can be more valuable and rich in experience. When this approach merged with the brand character, it becomes a holistic package that convey strongly to the marketplace. The mission is accomplished when people find delight in choosing and be able to trustfully choose the brand. 3. Conclusion The consumerism-driven market will make people enthusiastically choose the products they want. With an over-saturated market in Singapore, an unconventional design is required to for a fashion retail to be distinctive and thus, win the market. Firstly, the store has to manifest the brand that it represents. The store design must convey the brand and products philosophy to create holistic picture and strong brand awareness. Secondly, in terms experience, it must create refreshing and enriching way of shopping. In attempt to achieve the experience, store needs to be designed with consideration of three approaches (flexible frequent space, center of social activities, and cultural relevance). The new retail store requires constant changing in order to provide up to date shopping experience for customers. A store has to be a social assembly more than a commercial place, providing a tranquil customer-oriented atmosphere. Additionally, it is necessary for a store to have a connection with local context and create a sense of belonging in customers mind. Bibliography Antonini, Alessandra. 2008. Design Boutiques. Barcelona: Links Design Council, 2009. Retail Design. [Online] (Updated 26 Oct 2008) Available at: http://www.designcouncil.org.uk/About-Design/Design-Disciplines/Retail-Design/ [Accessed 17 January 2010] de Wild, Femke. 2009. Retail Future. FRAME. Issue 69, Jul/Aug, p.14. EnterpriseOne, 2009. Recent Retail Trends Future Developments. [Online] (Updated 01 Jan 2010) Available at: http://www.business.gov.sg/EN/Industries/Retail/StatisticsNTrends/FactsFiguresNTrends/retail_overview_trends.htm [Accessed 12 January 2010] Harvard Design School. 2001. The Harvard Design School Guide to Shopping. Cambridge: Taschen Pawson, John. Calvin Klein Store Paris [Photographs][Online] Available at: http://www.johnpawson.com/architecture/stores/calvinklein/paris [Accessed 5 April 2010] Luna, Ian. 2005. Retail. Architecture + Shopping. New York: Rizzoli Manuelli, Sara. 2006. Design for Shopping. London: Laurence King Mostaedi, Arian. 2004. Cool Shops. Singapore: Page One Pawley, Martin. 2000. Fashion + Architecture. London: Wiley-Academy Riewoldt, Otto. 2000. Retail Design. London: Page One 2002. Brandscaping. Berlin: Birkhauser Sellers, Susan. 2009. 24, Inc on interview with Idn. Idn vol 15 number 6, pp.22-23. Singapore Department of Statistic. 2009. Yearbook of Statistics Singapore. Statistics Singapore [Internet] (Updated 13 Aug 2009) Available at: www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/reference/yos09/yos2009.pdf [Accessed 10 January 2010]. Stegemeyer, Anne. 2004. Who s Who in Fashion. New York: Fairchild Publication.

Calcium In Contraction Of The Heart

Calcium In Contraction Of The Heart In cardiac muscle, excitation-contraction coupling is mediated by calcium-induced calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum through ryanodine receptors that are activated by calcium entry through L-type calcium channels on the sarcolemmal membrane. Although Ca2+ induced Ca2+ release triggered by the L-typed calcium current is the primary pathway for triggering Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, there are many other mechanisms that can also activate Ca2 + release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum such as Calcium induced calcium release (CICR) induced by T-typed calcium current, CICR triggered by calcium influx through Na+/Ca2+ exchange, and CICR mediated by calcium through tetrodotoxin (TTX)-sensitive Ca2+ current (ICa,TTX). As calcium is an important second messenger which is essential in regulating cardiac electrical activity as well as being the main activator of the myofilaments to which cause cardiac contraction. Mishandling of calcium is thought to lead many pathophysiological conditions. Knowledge of the mechanisms involved in regulating intracellular calcium and therefore contraction of the heart, may help to prevent and/or treat pathological conditions such as cardiac hypertrophy, arrhythmias or heart failure by using therapeutic agents targeted at modulating intracellular calcium. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Firstly, I would like to show my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Munir Hussain, who is a Senior Lecturer in Biomedical Sciences in University of Bradford for his innovative, supportive, expert, professional, kind and careful supervision, constant guidance and, academic support. Without his advice and guidance, my dissertation will not be finished with great success. I would also like to show my sincere thank to all the lecturers from Management Development Institute of Singapore (MDIS) and teachers in my student life for letting me gain strong knowledge in biomedical science field and essential knowledge to be in this stage and my student coordinator and stuffs from Student Service Unit (SSU) for their kind arrangement, support, encouragement and care. I would like to thank to all my friends who supported me both physically and mentally during my preparation for the dissertation. Last but not least, I would like to convey my special deep thank to my parents who always give me tender love, care and all supports all the time. Without their guidance, support and love, nothing can be achieved by me. LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Calcium transport in ventricular myocytes 3 Figure 2: Six possible mechanism of cardiac excitation-contraction coupling 9 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS LTCC = L-type calcium channels CICR = Calcium induced calcium release ECC = Excitation-contraction coupling NCX = Sodium-Calcium Exchange SR = Sarcoplasmic Recticulum ICa = Calcium current ICa,T = T-type calcium current ICa,L = L-type calcium current ICa,TTX = Tetrodotoxin-sensitive calcium current RyRs = Ryanodine Receptor [Ca2+]i = Intracellular calcium concentration [Ca2+]Tot = Total concentration of Calcium PKA = Protein Kinase A LVH = Left Ventricular Hypertrophy HOCM = Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy Introduction In heart muscle cell, the depolarization of action potential is due to the entering of Na+ ions via voltage gated Na+ channels and it is called fast inward current. The immediate repolarization is not possible due to rapidly inactivation of Na+ channel and initial depolarization allow the entering of calcium through voltage-grated Ca2+ channels and it is called second or the slow inward current. The rate of sodium channels inactivation is more rapid than that of calcium channels so that Ca2+ enters into the cell providing the membrane potential to close to 0mV for some part of action potential of heart muscle (Reuter, 1984). Excitation-contraction coupling (ECC) is the process in which an action potential triggers a myocyte to contract. In excitable muscle cells, the excitation signal causes rapid depolarization that produces the physiological response of contraction. Calcium is a ubiquitous second messenger, important in both, regulating the electrical activity of the heart as well as stimulating the myofilaments directly to cause contraction (Bers, 2001). In mammalian cardiac myocytes, the process of ECC is mediated by Ca2+ influx from the extracellular space that triggers Ca2+ Calcium induced Calcium release (CICR) from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) (Bers, 1991; Stern Lakatta, 1992). When action potential reaches the myocyte, causing it to undergo depolarization, which causes calcium ions to enter the cell through L type calcium channel located on the sarcolemma and thereby trigger calcium release from the SR. Calcium influx and the intracellular calcium concentration trigger the contraction of heart due to binding of Ca2+ to cardiac muscle fiber protein, troponin C. For activation of SR calcium release, the L-type calcium current is the most widely accepted mechanism thought to be responsible for CICR. However, SR calcium release can also be triggered by calcium influx through sodium-calcium exchange, calcium influx via T-type Ca2+ current or through tetrodotoxin-sensitive Ca2+ current, or Inositol (1,4,5)-triphosphate (but not so much in cardiac muscle). Declining of calcium level in the cells cause the detachment of calcium from myofilament and resulting in relaxation of the heart. There are four main pathways for Ca2+ transport out of the cytosol including SR Ca2+ ATPase, sarcolemmal Ca2+-ATPase or mitochondrial Ca2+ uniport and sarcolemmal Na+/Ca2+ exchange. (Bers, 2002). Since CICR is a positive-feedback mechanism, it has to be terminated which is essential for diastolic refilling of the heart. There are three main pathways for termination of calcium release such as local depletion of SR Ca2+, Ryanodine ( RyR) inactivation (or adaptation), and stochastic attrition. (Lukyanenko et al., 1998). Mutation in calcium channels can lead to life-threatening arrhythmias. The improper contractile function and abnormal heart rate associated with cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure is due to the mishandling of calcium in heart muscle cell (Pogwizd et al., 2001). In this dissertation, here I discuss about the key mechanism of how Ca2+ transport in cardiac ventricular myocytes. Moreover, I also discuss about how they are modulated and regulated as well as how they interact specifically. In addition, by knowing the subcellular mechanism of E-C coupling, here I discuss about how calcium is altering and getting mutated so as to cause cardiovascular diseases. The imp ortant molecular signaling pathways in contraction of heart will also be addressed. Figure 1. Calcium transport in ventricular myocytes. (Adapted from Bers, 2002) The figure shows the time course of an action potential, Ca2+ transient and contraction in rat ventricular myocytes, NCX, and other protein involved in contraction. Calcium channels in contraction of the heart In cardiac muscle, calcium has a role for the ability to make the cardiac cell to contract. There are five types of calcium channels; L, T, N, P/Q and R types. Among them, L-type and T-type calcium channels are two major types of calcium channels in the cells of cardiac tissues (Bean, 1989). L-type Ca2+ channels have many subunits in the heart such as ÃŽÂ ±1, ÃŽÂ ±2, ÃŽÂ ´ and ÃŽÂ ² subunits. The ÃŽÂ ±1 subunit is the dihydropyridine (DHP) receptors which are important for calcium entry into the cells (Liu et al., 2000). L-type calcium channels (long-lasting) can activates at more positive membrane potential (Em), at greater than -40mV and generate peak inward current at 0mV and slowly inactivated, and is sensitive to dihydropyridines (Tsien et al., 1987). Thus, the L-type Ca2+ channels are the majority of calcium channels responsible for entering of Ca2+ into the cardiac cell during phase 2 (plateau phase) of the action potential. On the other hand, T-type (tiny or tr ansient) Ca2+ channels cause the activation and inactivation at more negative membrane potential (Em) and dihydropyridines cannot block effectively (Nowycky et al., 1985). However T-type Ca2+ channels have faster kinetics than compared to L-type Ca2+ channels. During development and hypertrophy, T type calcium current is more prominent and the T-type current is typically small or absent in ventricular myocytes. The entering of Ca2+ into the cell by passing through I Ca,T is only responsible for smaller amount of Ca2+ than that passing through ICa,L. In most ventricular myocytes, T-type calcium current is almost negligible. It shows that the releasing and refilling is mainly provided by Ica,L. The amount of L-type calcium current and T-type calcium current is variable among cardiac myocytes. L-types calcium current is present in all cardiac myocytes whereas T-type calcium current have larger component in the canine Purkinje fiber (Zhou, 1998). Depolarization during the action potent ial causes activation of calcium current. During an action potential, the amount of calcium entry is limited by calcium dependent inactivation at the cytosolic side. L-type calcium channel is located at the sarcolemmal-SR junction where ryanodine receptors exist (Scriven et al., 2000). There is a negative feedback effect on Ca2+ influx and SR Ca2+ release during excitation-contraction mechanism. When there is increased Ca2+ influx or release, further release of Ca2+ is turned off. There are many isoforms of ryanodine receptors, (RyR1, RyR2, RyR3), among them, RYR2 is the cardiac isoform. RyR2 mediated release of Ca2+ from sarcoplasmic recticulum is an important step in cardiac E-C coupling in the heart. RyR2 is a Ca2+-gated channel (Nabauer et al, 1989). RyR2 is activated by Ca2+ influx through L-type Ca2+ channel or dihydropyridine receptor (Adachi-Akahane, 1996). Cytosolic Ca2+ is increased by the RyR2 opening and bind with contractile protein (troponin C) that trigger the contraction of heart. In ventricular myocytes, there are much more ryanodine receptors than dihydropyridine receptors. Therefore, four or ten RyRs can be associated with a single L-type Ca2+ channel (Bers et al., 1991). Defection in excitation- contraction coupling can occur due to either if RyRs channels sensitivity is altered for activation/inactivation or if the SR Ca2+ is depleted. There has been demonstrated in animal model of cardiomyopathy (Gomez et al, 1997). [Ca2+]i and Ca2+sparks [Ca2+]i and total [Ca2+] determine the development of contraction which produces both isometric force and rapid shortening (Moss, 2001). The strength of cardiac contraction can be changed by two ways: (1) by changing the extent and amplitude of the Ca2+ transient, (2) by altering the myofilament sensitivity to Ca2+. The sensitivity of myofilament calcium is increased by contracting the myofilament when the heart fills with blood resulting the contraction to be stronger. Caffeine and certain inotropic agents can enhance the myofilament sensitivity whereas the increased concentrations of phosphate and Mg2+ and acidosis reduce myofilament Ca2+ sensitivity. Ca2+ sparks is the process of spontaneous release of SR Ca2+ and it was described by using confocal fluorescence microscopy (Cheng et al., 1993). The release of SR Ca2+ via single L-type Ca2+ channel or RyRs openings generates Ca2+ sparks (Song et al., 1997). Ca2+ spark is activated by the Ca2+ entery through ICa (Cannell et al, 1995) . Ca2+ spark is triggered by the opening of single channel opening. There have been reported that spark probability can be depend on binding of two Ca2+ ions to the RyR (Santana et al., 1996). Thus, local cytosolic [Ca2+]i is important in the frequency of Ca2+ sparks and SR Ca2+ release. Moreover, the frequency of Ca2+ spark depends on the SR Ca2+ load (Cheng et al, 1993). When there is increased SR Ca2+ load, this may lead to increase the amplitude of Ca2+ spark. Therefore SR Ca2+ load is an important factor for Ca2+ release from SR. Role of Sarcoplamic Recticulum ECC and intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis are primarily regulated by sarcoplasmic recticulum (Bers, 1991). Once stimulation, calcium enters the cell, thereby stimulating the release of larger amount of calcium from SR resulting in activation of contractile protein and contraction of the heart. During cardiac relaxation, Ca2+ is taken up by SR by SR Ca2+ ATPase pump and Na+/Ca2+ exchange pump. The key SR Ca2+ release channel involved in cardiac contraction is RyRs and RyR2 is the cardiac isoform. The amount and fraction of Ca2+ release that depends on the level of SR Ca2+ load can release for a given ICa trigger (Shannon et al., 2000). Sensitivity of RyRs receptor to [Ca2+]i at high load of SR Ca2+ leads to increase spontaneous SR Ca2+ release. On the other hand, decrease in SR Ca2+ release (which is induced by ICa ) can be due to low SR[Ca2+] content. The lower the amount of the SR Ca2+ release, the more amount of Ca2+ enter the cells through Na+/Ca2+ exchange. When there is low concent ration in SR Ca2+, Ca2+ release from SR is turned off during E-C coupling. Furthermore, SR Ca2+ content depends on the heart rate and duration of action potential. Ca2+ concentration release from SR can be increased by more mount of Ca2+ enter into the cell, by decreasing Ca2+ efflux or increasing SR Ca2+ uptake. Phospholamben, an endogenous inhibitor of SR Ca2+ ATPase, is triggered by activation of cAMP-dependent or calmodulin-dependent protein kinase. When this phospholamben becomes phosphorylated, Ca2+ uptake by SR is increased and allows faster cardiac relaxation and declining of [Ca2+]i. Targeted knockout of phospholamben leads to hyperdynamic hearts with negative effects (Brittsan Kranias, 2000). Interestingly, lower SR Ca2+ uptake, reduced SR Ca2+ATPase gene and protein expression were seen in failing human heart (Pieske et al., 1995). On the other hand, there has been demonstrated that increased gene expression of sarcolemmal Na+/Ca2+ exchanger was seen in human failing hea rt (Reinecke et al., 1996). Regulation of Calcium current Ica can be variable physiologically and pharmacologically. During physiological sympathetic stimulation of heart, catecholamine stimulate beta-adrenegic receptors, which improve the force of contraction (inotropic effects) and relaxation (lusitorpic effects) and declining of [Ca2+]i. In addition, stimulation of ÃŽÂ ²-adrenergic receptor stimulates a GTP-binding protein that accelerates adenylyl cyclase for the cAMP production. cAMP activates PKA, which phospharylates severe protein such as phospholamban, RyR, L-types Ca2+ channels, myocin binding protein C and troponin I ( which are related to ECC). Activation and phosphorylation of L-type Ca2+ channels will cause Ca2+ release from SR causing contraction of the heart. Phosphorylation of troponin I and phospholamban stimulate the reuptake of Ca2+ release from SR and Ca2+ is dissociated from the myofilament and develops to cardiac relaxation (Lusitropic effect). The inotrophic effect of PKA (protein kinase A) activation is triggered by the combination greater availability of SR Ca2+ and increased calcium current. Open probability of RyR channels can also be modulated by protein kinase A. RyRs receptors are hyperphosphorylated in heart failure causing a diastolic leak of SR Ca2+. However, whether PKA-dependent phosphorylation will alter during excitation-contraction or not still remain controversial. Moreover, phosphorylation of L-type Ca2+ channels, phospholamban and troponin I are paralleled with activation of ß1-adrenergic receptors in ventricular myocytes that produce inotrophic and lusitropic effects. On the other hand, ß2-adrenergic receptors activation can give more restricted to the enhancement of ICa (Kushel et al., 1999). cAMP production can also be stimulated by the G-protein-coupled receptors such as prostaglandin E and histamine that will lead to little or no effect of inotropic effects (Vila Petroff et al, 2001). Other receptors will also regulate the signaling pathway. For instance, M2-musc arinic receptors activation can decrease cAMP and activation of PKA thereby decreasing Ca2+ entry and release. In addition, this pathway also enhances repolarization. The pharmacological effects of L-type Ca2+ channels are in which calcium sensitivity to dihydropyridines (nephedipine, amlodipine, nitrendine, nimodipine, nisoldipine). Ica is inhibited by most of DHPs and they are called Ca2+-channel blockers. In DHPs, there are two other types of specific L-type Ca2+ channel blockers (1) phenyalkylamines (eg. verapamil, D600) and (2) benzothiazepines (eg, diltiazem), and those agents can act together directly with the Ca2+ channel (Glossmann et al., 1985). Verapamil can inhibit the calcium channel in the open state but it require depolarization pulse) and this is called use dependent. The neutral ligands such as nitrendipine and nisoldipine inhibit ICa depend on the calcium channel whether they are in the opening state or inactivated state , and does not require depolarization pulse as they are voltage dependent than use dependent. Figure 2. Six possible mechanism of cardiac excitation-contraction coupling. (Adapted from Bers, 1999) The figure shows Ca2+ influx via ICa,L, Ca2+ influx via ICa,T,Ca2+influx through NCX, Ca2+ influx via IP3 ,Ca2+ influx via ICa,TTX and depolarization dependent Ca2+ influx. Calcium induced calcium release during E-C coupling There have been demonstrated that CICR in skinned ventricular myocytes (Fabiato and Fabiato, 1975). There was been proved that main pathway of E-C coupling in cardiac myocytes is by Ca entry through L-type Ca2+ channels and triggers SR Ca2+ release (Bers, 1991). When calcium channel becomes deactivates, before calcium channels close, calcium transient is induced by a large and short-lived ICa causing contraction. Moreover, Ca2+ channel activation in the absence of Ca2+ influx also cannot induce calcium release from the SR (Nabauer et al., 1989). There is supported that ICa activate SR Ca2+ release channel when there is a high concentration of Ca2+ buffer in the cell (Adachi-Akahane et al., 1996). Ca2+ release from SR is most commonly activated by L-type Ca2+ channels and this pathway is called Ca2+ induced Ca2+ release (CICR). There has been little doubt that E-C coupling occurs physiologically but there are other mechanisms which can exit in parallel and give rise to the functional effects. Ca influx via ICa,T In ventricular myocytes, T-type calcium channels is relatively small or absent but it is more prominent in the development and hypertrophy of the heart. Because of T-type calcium current is relatively small and rapidly inactivated, the total amount of calcium influx through T-type calcium current is absolutely small compared to calcium influx via ICa,L (Zhou, 1998). Moreover, T-type calcium current is negligible in most of ventricular myocytes. T-type Ca2+channels are not located at the SR junction, therefore the effectiveness of ICa,T as a trigger for Ca2+ release from SR is not effective as ICa,L. Furthermore, SR Ca2+ release by ICa,T is delayed on onset and slower than ICa,L. However, it can be significant in other cardiac cells such as some atrial cells and Purkinje fibers (Zhou and January, 1998). Since T-type calcium channel is non-functional in most of the myocytes of ventricle, it does not play a major role for ECC although it may function like ICa,L. So, ICa,T only plays a m inor role in triggering Ca2+ release from SR during action potential. Ca influx via Na+/Ca2+ exchange Although L-type Ca2+ current is a major role of CICR in contraction of the heart, some argued that the L-type Ca2+ channels could not be the only way to trigger the calcium release from SR. There is an alternative trigger of calcium release in mammalian cardiac myocytes (Chunlei Han et al., 2002). The result of Ca2+ release by Na+/Ca2+ exchanger has been proved by examination on rats (Wasserstorm and Vites, 1996), rabbit (Litwin et al., 1998) and guinea pig (Sipida et al., 1997). Immunofluorescence labeling shows that the exchanger current is present in the cardiac T-tubules system (Scriven et al, 2000). There are two ways of triggering Ca2+ release from SR by Na+/ Ca2+ exchanger. The first mechanism is Na+ current by increasing local [Na+]sm, increasing Ca2+ entry through Na+/Ca2+ exchanger and causing SR Ca2+ release (Levesque et al.,1994 ). The second one is that depolarization directly stimulates outward INa/Ca and Ca2+ release and contraction when L-type Ca2+ channel become bloc ked or at high positive Em (Levi et al.,1994 and Litwin et al.,1998 ). Increased intracellular sodium stimulate the Na+/Ca+ exchanger (Evans and Cannell, 1997 ) and, if INa is low ([Na+]i=10nM) or lower, the reverse current of the Na+/Ca2+ exchange could trigger Ca2+ release account for 25%. When [Na+]i=30nM, the contribution of Na+/Ca2+ exchanger increase up to 100%. Additionally, the exchanger current is more dependent on the temperature and changes in the intracellular sodium and calcium concentrations than compared to L-type calcium current. Furthermore, these changes are larger in the microdomain or subspace (interaction between RyR receptors and L-type Ca2+ channels occurs) than compared to the rest of the cytoplasm (Vornanen et al., 1994). Although LTCC are faster than the exchanger current in triggering of Ca2+ release from SR, Ca2+ entry through the exchanger into the subspace is faster in beginning than L-type Ca2+ current when there is action potential stimulations becaus e the action potentials upstroke and sodium (inward) current is associated with rapid increase in [Na+]i. Therefore, any physiological stimulation or medication that alters the intracellular sodium becomes the regulator of calcium release from sarcoplasmic reticulum. Stimulation via hormone, such as activation of endothelin-1 (ET-1) receptor (Alvarez et al., 1999), and increasing frequency of action potential (Simor et al., 1997) will increase the intracellular sodium concentration, causing calcium release triggering via the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger by opposing to via the L-type calcium current. Ca2+ release from SR is slower via Ca2+ influx through Na+/Ca2+ exchanger than through L-type calcium channel (Spido et al., 1997) . Ca influx via TTX sensitive-Na channels Aggarwal and co-worker reported voltage-gated, calcium conducting sodium channel, (ICa,TTX), calcium entry via tetrodotoxin-sentive Na+ channels can also mediates CICR. This channel activates at membrane potential of -60mV and has faster kinetics than L-type Ca2+ channels. It can alter selectivity of cardiac Na+ channels triggers by either activation of agonist effects ÃŽÂ ²-adrenergic receptor or cardioactive steroids or cardiac glycosides, resulting Na+ channel prefer Ca2+ than Na channels and it is called slip mode or altered selectivity mode. The tetrodotoxin-sensitive Ca2+ influx can also trigger the SR Ca2+ release. The inotrophic effects of cardiac glycosides and ÃŽÂ ²-adrenergic agonists could be a novel mechanism. These effects could be triggered by SR Ca2+-pump activity and increased ICa or by Na+/K+ ATPase inhibition and also decreased Ca2+ efflux through Na+/Ca2+ exchange for cardiotonic glycosides (Borgatta et al., 1991). Moreover, one study in rat ventricular myoc ytes reported that Na+ current is activated by the phyosphoryation by protein kinase A or by the cardiotonic steroids. (slip mode conductance) (Santana, 1998). In addition, modified Na+currents conduct ICa,TTX which in turn triggers CICR. The relation between slip mode conductance and ICa,TTX is still controversial (Nuss, 1999). On the other hand, another study demonstrarted that Ca2+ current due to ICa,TTX or slip mode conductance is not related and identical. The reason is that the presence of cardiac steroids or activation of PKA is not a requirement for the detection of ICa(TTX). A small fraction of Na + currents can conduct ICa(TTX) even without phosphorylation of PKA (Nuss, 1999). Furthermore, TTX sensitive-Na+ channels cannot be inhibited by the blockers of T-type or L-type Ca2+ channels. Recently, one of studies showed that ICa(TTX) and T-type Ca2+channel coexit in guinea pig venricular myocytes because 10 mM mibefradil could block both ICa(TTX) and T-type Ca2+current (Heuba ch, 2000). Although this current is not the major current for triggering the CICR, its possible functional roles are important in normal heart cells such as promoting the sodium current activation and modulating rhythmicity of the heart. Ca influx via IP3 pathway Inositol (1, 4, 5) triphosphate could trigger Ca2+ release from SR and endoplamic reticulum in different cell types, they are called IP3 receptors. In ventricular myocytes, the major form of InsP3 is isoform 2 (Lipp et al., 2000). There are more InP3 receptors in atrial cells in ventricular myoctyes. Stimulation of IP3 signal transduction pathway can trigger the release of Ca2+ from SR via IP3 receptors which is located on SR. Even high concentration of InP3 in cardiac myocytes could trigger Ca2+ release from the SR, the extent of Ca2+ release from the SR are so much lower than CICR triggered by LTCC. Moreover, action potential cannot stimulate the InP3 production (Kentish et al., 1990). The production of InP3 contractile force is increased by cardiac alpha-adrenergic and muscarinic agonists (Poggioli et al., 1986). In addition, InP3 pathway only plays a very little minor role in cardiac EC coupling. To conclude for triggering Ca2+ release from SR, CICR in cardiac contraction is mai nly through L-type Ca2+channel.Other mechanisms that mentioned above show minor role in SR calcium release. Cardiac relaxation During an action potential, calcium entry into the cell is slow at the end of phase 2 and there is lowering of the cytosolic calcium concentration because calcium is taken back by the SR and removing of calcium from the troponin C and finally initial sarcomere length is restored. For relaxation and cardiac ventricular filling, Ca2+ have be removed from the cytosol to lower [Ca2+]i , causing relaxation. Cardiac relaxation to occur, Ca2+ must be dissociate from troponin C and it requires Ca2+ transport out of the cytosol primarily by four main pathways involving, sarcolemmal Na+/Ca2+ exchange, SR Ca2+-ATPase, sarcolemmal Ca2+-ATPase or mitochondrial Ca2+ uniport. There are selective inhibition for each transporter during cardiac myocyte relaxation and [Ca2+]i decline (Puglisi et al., 1996). SR Ca2+ uptake can be prevented by either thapsigargin or caffeine, complete removal of extracellular Na+ and Ca2+ can prevent sodium calcium exchange. Either carboxyeosin or elevated [Ca2+]i inhibi t sarcolemmel Ca2+-ATPase, and mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake can be inhibited by rapid dissipation of the electrochemical driving force for SR Ca2+ uptake by using protonophore FCCP. In rabbit ventricular myocytes, 70% of the activated Ca2+ removed by the SR Ca2+-ATPase from the cytosol, whereas 28% was removed by NCX, only 1% for sarcolemmal Ca2+-ATPase as well as mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter remove 1% of calcium from SR ( the last two pathways are called slow systems). In rat ventricular myocytes, SR Ca2+-ATPase activity is higher due to more pump molecules in unit cell volume (Hove-Madsen Bers, 1993). On the other hand, Ca2+ removal via Na+/Ca2+ exchange is lower, 92% with SR Ca2+-ATPase, 7% with NCX, the slow systems with 1 % respectively. In mouse ventricular myocytes, the uptake mechanism is quite similar to rat, (Li et al., 1998) while the mechanisms of Ca2+ fluxes in human ventricular myocytes, guinea pig and ferret are more similar to rabbit myocytes (Pieske et al., 1999). In contraction and relaxation of myocytes, the amount of calcium removed from the cell during relaxation must be the same as the amount of calcium entry during contraction in each heart beat, if not, the cell may gain or lose the calcium. Defects in Ca2+ removal also can cause impair relaxation Termination of calcium release Although CICR is a positive-feedback mechanism, termination or turning off of the Ca2+is important for diastolic refilling of the heart. There are three major ways for terminations of Ca2+release include local SR depletion, RyR inactivation or adaptation and stochastic attriction (Sham et al.,1998; Lukyanenko Gyorke,1998). Stochastic attriction means L-type Ca2+ channels and all RyRs are closed simultaneously, then local [Ca2+]i will drop quickly to the sub-threshold level and disturbing the release from SR . However, this is only used for 1DHPR and 1-2 RyRs whereas they all will not close at once for other types of channels. In addition, local depletion of SR Ca2+ also may terminate SR Ca2+ but it cannot completely turn-off of release, because very long lasting Ca2+ sparks are found that will not decline with time (Satoh Bers, 1997). However other regions of SR can also limit local SR Ca2+ depletion. During a global Ca2+ transient, the whole SR Ca2+ declines. During a relaxation, SR Ca2+ depletion could lead to the turning -off global SR Ca2+ release. There are two types of RyR inactivation both of which depend on [ Ca2+ ]i .One of them is absorbing inactivation ( for example like Na+ channels), in which the ryanodine receptor cannot reopen until it recovers (Sham et al., 1998; Lukyanenko Gyorke, 1998). The another one is called RyR adaptation in which ryanodine after activation leads to a reduced open probability, but it can be reactivated by higher [Ca2+]i (Valdivia et al.,1995). RyRs inactivation could be important in reducing SR Ca2+ release events between each heart beats. To summarize, Ca2+ release during ECC is terminated mainly by a local RyRs inactivation and partial SR luminal Ca2+ depletion which leads to reduce RyR openings and variant of stochastic attrition also contributes. Role of calcium channels in cardiac hypertrophy, heart failure and arrhythmia Intracellular calcium is the major regulator of cardiac contraction. Therefore, altered cardiomyocyte regulation is important in arrhythmogenesis, cardiac mechanical dysfunction and cardiac hypertrophy associated with heart failure. Alteration in signal transduction pathways can also lead to loss of inotropic effects in heart failure. Defects in ECC have been reported in animal models of cardiomyopathy (Gomez et al., 1997). There is no E-C coupling depression was seen in pressure overload of cardiac hypertrophy with less sign of heart failure. (Rios et al., 1992). Cardiac hypertrophy is the enlargement and thickening of the heart muscle resulting in decreasing size of the chamber of the heart. Cardiac hypertrophy is the main cause of cardiac morbidity and mortality in cardiovascular system. It is associated with heart failure without myocardial infarction. Cardiac hypertrophy is associated with significant changes in myocardial contraction. These contractile dysfunctions are followed by changing in the whole-cell intracellular calcium transient. The pathogenesis and etiology of cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure related with the role of Ca2+ channels still remains controversial. of ÃŽÂ ² subunits of L-type Ca2+ channels (LTCCÃŽÂ ²) enhances the probability of channels opening as well as also favours the trafficking of the Ca2+ channels to the surface membrane leading to increase calcium current (Chen Y.H, 2004). Interestingly, there has been reported upregulation of LTCCÃŽÂ ² in failing human cardiomyocytes (Hullin et al, 2003). In aortic banding, L-type Ca2+ channels concentration is remain unchange in rats myocytes with hypertrophy ( Scamps et al.,1990), cats with pulmonary artery banding (Kleinman, 1988) cardiomyopathy in Syrian hamsters (Sen, 1994) ,and ventricular